The Weave is a section of my publication where I explore aspects of fashion and costume history, and how they relate to the way we see and consume fashion today, with a special focus on material culture, craft techniques, sustainability, menswear, and queer masculinity.

This piece explores fashion as a symbol of overconsumption, superficiality, and the desire to maintain social appearances.

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The sumptuary laws became a fascinating subject to me, and I briefly mentioned them here and here, and how they were meant, in part, to keep society virtuous during a time of increasing wealth and material possession.

I truly believe that fashion, costume, and textile history exist at the same intellectual level as fields like history, sociology, and archaeology, and I have never quite understood why this cultural potential is so often overlooked, or why the fashion industry itself seems to promote the sense of superficiality that people associate with it.

By studying these laws and how people interacted with the moral values, clothing, and image of their time, I began to see patterns and dynamics that are still present today. Even though they may not provide clear answers, they can offer some insight on many aspects of contemporary fashion and how the public engages with it.

Fashion as a class battlefield:

Until the 13th century, clothing was primarily about functionality. It was during this period that attention to detail, materials, and meaning began to emerge. As my former costume history professor used to say, this marked the birth of fashion as a pursuit of aesthetics and opulence.

By the 15th and 16th centuries, a period marked by increasing social mobility, the bourgeoisie were getting closer to the nobility. Fashion became the medium through which these classes asserted their positions. Those who were not born into nobility but were rising economically began to seek out materials and garments associated with the aristocracy. In contrast, many nobles pushed for sumptuary laws not only to promote virtue, but also to reinforce class divisions.

“An English Puritan named Philip Stubbs writes in The Anatomie of Abuses (1583):”

“Now in England there is such a mixture of dress and with it such ridiculous exaggeration that any person is allowed to go about in any dress he may desire or procure by any means, so that it is really difficult to know who is noble, who is worthy of respect, who is a gentleman or who is not…”

“In La civil conversazione (1574), Italian diplomat Stefano Guazzo states:”

“The indiscretion of some ignoble rich people, who are not ashamed to dress nobly and bear arms meant only to knights … no distinction between their ranks is known any more, and you see that the peasants presume to compete in clothing with the craftsmen, and the craftsmen with the merchants, and the merchants with the nobles.”

And in 1565, an anonymous letter was written in Milan as a protest, stating:

If it were said that the great decorum of a city is the power of its clothes to distinguish at first sight the ignoble from the noble...

The height of this dynamic came in the 18th century, particularly in the court of Versailles. The nobles’ attempt to differentiate themselves from the bourgeoisie gave rise to increasingly extravagant fabrics, garments, and silhouettes. Versailles became the center of a fashion system driven by novelty and excess. Soon the first magazine to cover the idea of fashion, the Mercure Galant, would put Versailles as the official trendsetter, creating a sort of ‘trickle down’ fashion system:

1. The court of Versailles

2. The old nobility (and other royal and noble courts around the continent)

3. The Parisian high class

4. The ‘new rich’

5. The urban lower classes

6. The countryside

   

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Material culture

The rise of a new class with access to goods once reserved for the old nobility was not the only factor driving this culture of appearances. Economic growth also introduced new materials and production methods, often aimed at reducing costs.

People now had access to silk blended with linen, wool, or other cheaper materials, and decorative motifs and elements were getting smaller, requiring less time and fewer resources to produce. Knitted pieces started to replace garments that were traditionally made with woven fabrics, such as the tights, which could be considered one of the first cases of ready-to-wear, as people could buy the ready-made pieces directly, instead of ordering made-to-measure.

There was also the emergence of clothing rental for special occasions, allowing individuals to present themselves in a certain way without excessive expense. This enabled not only the wealthy bourgeoisie, but also the middle classes, to participate in this system of appearances.

Fashion people

The superficiality of this race for novelty and appearances within fashion soon became apparent. As the fashion system was closely tied to the French court, many of its critics were English writers, who viewed this consumption-driven approach as incompatible with values of modesty and moderation promoted by the growing Protestant culture of English society.

This little rant, written anonymously, shows the English opposition to the new fashion system:

Is there another nation on the face of the earth today that can compare with us in this abominable sin of pride? Our excess in dress would say no, for both men and women of all conditions and ranks, from the highest to the lowest, sin so monstrously...

... And just as men and women overindulge in the substance of their dress, so too do they daily display their abominable pride in their inconstancy, for no color, shape, or form satisfies them entirely.

But the English were not the only ones to speak out against this new way of dressing. The Dutch, influenced by similar Puritan ideals, also opposed the culture emerging from Versailles. Bernard de Mandeville, in The Fable of the Bees, described fashion as a tool for climbing the social hierarchy:

People, if they are not otherwise known, are usually honored according to their clothing and other adornments... This is what drives all those who are aware of their little merit to wear, if they can, clothes superior to their rank, especially in large and populous cities where obscure people can meet fifty strangers in an hour for one well-known person, and thus have the pleasure of being esteemed by a large majority not for what they are, but for what they appear to be. And this is too strong a temptation for many.

But what does all of this have to do with fashion today? If we look closer, these dynamics are still happening: The quiet luxury of the ‘old money’ people, mostly hidden from others, serves to distance them from the extravagance and attention-seeking of the ‘new rich’, who are desperate to be seen, envied, and desired. While those with no money, contemporary peasants consumed by social media and influencer culture, try at all costs to resemble the new rich, going for cheap knockoffs. Or for those of the working class with a bit more privilege, saving money in order to be able to show a designer piece. In the same way, the bourgeoisie started to consume the new inventions of the 15th century.

The mannerisms are also copied, transformed and exaggerated in order to portray a higher position, with an unnecessary sense of superiority, arrogance and bitterness. What is important is to not be perceived as what you really are.

It’s like the ouroboros: There is the urge to create and show perfect, fabricated version of yourself, in order to feel closer to those you aspire to be, which in turn will influence others more unprivileged than you to do the same. And those at the ‘top’ will continue to distance themselves further, feeding the fire that is the dissonance between the self and performance.

And the masses will stand in awe.

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Barefoot, wild and free. With a yellow band on her waist, she unties the love knots. Freeing herself from any social bond and rules.

“Mit vir der Wellein” (Meaning “with your consent” in old German) is written in this brothel pillow case found in Basel in the 1400’s. I had the privilege to see this piece in an exhibition in Zurich (mentioned here) that I visited over a year ago.

In the scene, we can see a prostitute with a flower garland on her hair, a flowing dress and a yellow band on her waist, untying love knots from a tree with our consent, as she says. A provocation, as regardless of how she is seen and how marginalized she is for her ‘crimes’, she can only perform her deeds by the request and desire of the righteous men who throw stones at her.

But how do we know that she is indeed a sex worker? There were many dress codes, laws and signals regarding clothing in that period, and wearing a yellow waistband was one those. This knitted wool piece shows how they were viewed as deceivers, untying love knots symbolizing the sanctity of marriage. The yellow band was symbolic because the color was a considered a symbol of deceit, infidelity and treachery, and often used in art to represent characters related to it.

This affresco shows the “Juda’s kiss”, at the Capella degli Scrovegni, in Padova, Italy. Painted by Giotto, it shows the most famous treachery of Christianity, and even in her, the yellow mantle was used to dress Judas as the traitor.

In another Affresco, we can see Judas selling himself to the Devil, accepting the silver coins as a payment for his services.

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But the presence of a yellow band was not the only instrument used to signal the virtue of a woman as already from the late 1200’s, a series of laws regarding dressing were put in place.

They varied, concerning the length of the dress, how colorful it could be, and how many jewels and stones could be used to decorate the garment. There were also a number of limitations on textiles, where elaborated patterns and materials like silk were forbidden. The idea was not only to promote modesty against indecency, but also to suppress any expression of individuality.

Social class and different stages of life played a role on what one could wear or not. Most noblewomen were allowed to wear more expensive and detailed textiles and jewelry if the cut of the garment itself was modest enough, while unmarried young women were allowed to be a bit more ‘extravagant’ as a way to call the attention of potential suitors.

With time, the pursuit of modesty went hand in hand with social stratification, with the introduction of taxes and fines for illegal garments. In Florence, one could simply pay a fine, mark and declare their piece of garment, then they would be good to go. A luxury that lower class citizens couldn’t afford.

So, a summary of Tuscany’s Sumptuary laws:

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• Textiles: Too many colors, patterns and decorations such as embroidery, stones, pearls and beads were forbidden, along with fibers like silk. Not only women, but also men were allowed to wear one or two colors in the same outfit while simple and geometric patterns were allowed. Embroidery pieces were allowed, as long only the hems were embroidered, and no gold thread was used.

• Headpieces: It was a custom of the time to make braids intertwined with cloth stripes. Naturally, silk, pearls and jewelry were forbidden and the look needed to be the most modest as possible. Head garlands were also allowed, and often were used as a way of styling without catching the attention from legislators.

• The undershirt: As it was an underwear, it wasn’t contemplated by the regulations, as it was a given that were supposed to be hidden. They were usually made of cotton or linen.

• Giubba: It was worn write above the undershirt, but it was still considered to be an intimate undergarment. But the presence of legislation to regulate how they should be made indicates that there were moments when they were supposed to be seen in certain contexts. The pieces could be bi-color, divided in half or striped.

• The tunic: Also called Gonnella, the first piece to be worn and seen, it covered both the Giubba and the Undershirt. It could be worn both on a domestic or elegant environment. It was a long piece of dress, following the measurement guidelines, with no waist line and very fitted sleeves. The sleeve buttons should be sown in a straight line, couldn’t be made of gold, and if silver was used, it had a weight limit. The number of buttons also couldn’t surpass the elbow.

• Guarnaca: Almost like an ‘over tunic’. It was worn over the Gonnella, and had larges sleeves so the ones from the under tunic could be seen. Both pieces were usually worn with matched fabrics, or with a two-color contrast.

• The mantle: It was one of the most important pieces to indicate statues and social class of the woman wearing it. Unmarried woman could wear mantles with simple ornaments and decorations (always avoiding pearls and too much gold and other precious stones), and using fur as lining was also forbidden.

• Footwear: There aren’t many rule regarding footwear, as they were supposed to be hidden by the length of the Guarnaca, with the exception of places like Florence, where decorations such as embroidery and leather-carving were forbidden. The general rules regarding footwear were more related to the erotic nature the feet had to them, as it was forbidden for shoemakers to touch a woman’s feet.

• Fur: Artisans needed a license to work with the most precious fur such as stoat, which the use was also reserved to member of the higher class, such as nobles, doctors, knights and lawyers and their wives.

• Belts: As usual, precious materials like silver threads, gold, jewels and stones were forbidden, and there was a weight limit on the belts that could be worn. Teenagers and unmarried young woman were allowed to wear more decorated pieces.

• Bags: Small bags attached to the belt or gonnella usually had the same restrictions as the belts, regarding the presence of precious materials and decoration. But women in general were not supposed to wear them, as shown in most artistic representations, they were usually reserved for men.

• Gloves: A symbol of power, they were reserved to member of high society, as long as they were not made of silk. Interesting enough, prostitutes were also obliged to wear white gloves as a sign of recognition. For that reason, women that were not outcast from society usually wore blue gloves.

  

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As mentioned before, all of these rules could be avoided by the noblewomen and wives of lawyers, doctors and knights as long as they kept the desired standard of modesty. And with time, most of the Sumptuary laws turned into a way to raise funds and taxes for the State, being less about morality and more about who can ‘flex’ their status.

In this scenario, prostitutes were in a particular position. In some places in Tuscany they were indirectly allowed to be as extravagant and lavish as they could afford, as by being prostitutes, they were not even considered worthy of being regulated by society’s virtue based laws, but were required to wear some identifier such as white gloves and yellow scarves sometimes. The relationship of Yellow color and the lack of morals, with the yellow band or scarf, was kept in most of Italy and German speaking countries.

Other European regions had their own identifiers and regulations, like in France and England, where they were forbidden to wear jewels, fur or other ‘respectable’ garment pieces. Caps and Striped hoods were also a common piece for prostitutes. In Milan they wore black cloaks, while the striped hoods were common in Britain. Switzerland was a particular case, as we have art showing the usage of the yellow band (see the tapestry in the beginning of the post), but also the presence of red caps in cities like Zurich and Bern.

Most of my references for this piece are from the past exhibition “Bodies in the middle age” in Zurich, and from the book “Moda a Firenze e in Toscana nel trecento” (Fashion in Florence and Tuscany in 1300) for those who can read in Italian :)

But the Sumptuary laws are a vast subject, with a lot of regional and chronological variations. So I hope you enjoyed this small summary, and that it might inspire you to take your research further.

Thank you for reading, and let me know what you think.

My best friend then proposed a trip to Belfast.

I was always fascinated by the emerald Island, and spent time there to study English in Limerick some years ago. I was in love with the fairy lore, the landscape and the homeland of two of my favorite writers: W.B Yeats and Oscar Wilde. So I was down to return there.

I was positively surprised when a trip inspired by folklore, poetry and connection with nature actually became an opportunity to learn an interesting piece of fashion and textile history, and how Belfast is the center for one of my favorite fibers to work with.

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A folk production

As with many other fibers and spinning techniques, the production of linen was mostly done in the countryside by children and women who would perform a long manual process of turning flax seeds into fiber and thread. Men would then take part in the process of weaving the threads into fabrics with spinning wheels and hand looms. The result would be a brown linen textile, sold at markets to be bleached and dyed. Although it was a long and intensive process, Ireland was already known for its Linen production, exporting most of it to England.

The first changes into the traditional, and familiar production of linen in the countryside started with the arrival of French Huguenots, Calvinist protestants who settled in Northern Ireland by the end of the 17th century, bringing with them new work force and techniques. The Linen Board would then be established in 1711 to oversee the growth of new ways of production and to import newer and better seeds into the country, and in 1784, the White linen Hall was built in Belfast in a way to compete with the linen market of Dublin.

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The birth of an Industry

In 1845 the company called Combe Barbour was created, and this would raise the levels of production from countryside tradition to a urban industry. They were located in the Falls Road area of West Belfast, and produced machinery not only for linen textile, but also for other fibers such as jute, hemp, rope and cotton. Another historical machinery manufacturer was James Mackie & Sons, who would also export their machines worldwide.

As we all know by now, the process of industrialization created a way for a faster and cheaper production, that traditional handmade methods from the countryside could not compete. The rural exodus then started, with a large a migration flow into the city, with people looking to work in the new linen mills.

The industry had another boom in 1861 with the outbreak of the US civil war impacting the supply chain of US cotton and increasing the demand for Irish linen.

By 1900, over 65.000 people worked at the Irish linen mills, mainly in Belfast. The working conditions weren’t easy, working for 6 days a week for over 12 hours per day. Most workers were women who continued to work after marriage, or who returned right after child birth. Work safety varied according to occupation, with the final stages of production such as embroidery, having a very low pay but safer and healthier working conditions.

Today, at least within the Irish linen industry, the working conditions are far better. Although textile and garment workers around the world, are still working under the same (or worse) conditions than those from the linen mills of over a hundred years ago.

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A sustainable fiber

In terms of sustainability, linen is far superior than cotton by needing less resources to be produced, but this is not their only benefit:

• Flax plants are CO2-neutral

• Flax grows without competing with directly with food crops

• It’s a durable fiber, that also becomes softer with use.

• It’s lightweight and breathable, and in the context of menswear, is perfect for summer suits.

Some of my creations in Linen here

“And then I became almost an idolater: I acquired a statue of Aphrodite, to which I burnt incense and brought flowers every morning.”

Besides all its problems, Milan is considered the “gay haven” of Italy, with the whole neighborhood of Porta Venezia dedicated to the Queer community. So it shouldn’t be a surprise to me that there is also an entire book store dedicated to Queer and Feminist literature.

If I decided to write a Substack for every book and subject one can find there, and how it relates to Queerness, from fashion and art history to poetry, literature, cinema and political science, I wouldn’t have the time to write about anything else. So for now I will focus on a particular book that I found there: The “Confessions of an Italian invert to Émile Zola”. (Or confessions of a homosexual if we make a literal translate of the title in the Italian version.)

As I’ve written on this note, the book offers great insights on the Fashion and elements of gay social customs of the time, and some behaviors that we can even see among gay men today.

Comprising a collection of anonymous letters, written by an Italian noblemen to the famous French writer Emile Zola as a form of a confession and liberation. A way to offer himself to be studied (a touch of narcissism that is very easy to grasp by his letters) and find an explanation for his condition. Which in the end, turned into a celebration of his sexuality, vanity and aestheticism.

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The male figure

Our anonymous aristocrat brings us to 1889, during the reigns of King Umberto I of Italy and Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. Although there is no clear indication of who he is, we do know that he is from a minor noble family from Naples, and mentioned that his grandfather married an English noblewoman. This marriage was the introduction of the Anglomania in the family, and had a direct influence on his fashion sense.

“I enjoy the correct and straight chic of the English, from which we follow all the simple and singular fashion. I love the black, which enhances my blond and gracious image. I also enjoy the most interesting shirts and undergarments and the most elegant and fashionable boots”

A direct quote from the book, with a rough translation from Italian. It shows us not only his (low-key obnoxious) vanity, but also an idea of the menswear of the time, specifically the English. Or at least, the idea of how it was perceived by an Italian nobleman.

Already entering the 90’s and following the English fashion, he probably would be wearing a morning coat in a matched three-piece suit, all in black as his preference. The morning coat was originally worn by upper class men as riding coat, but by the 50’s it had replaced the Frock as the preferred formal wear.

Combining some research with what he says in the letters, I believe his morning suit to be made as it follows:

• Matching V-notch lapels for both the coat and waistcoat

• Single breasted waistcoat, made with the same fabric as the trousers and coat. Usually black or dark gray. It could be decorated with a golden watch-fob that our Italian aristocrat probably used.

• The edges of the coat are cut as a soft and fluid line towards the back, which was the most iconic aspect of the morning coat, together with two decorative buttons on the back.

• By the 90’s, the hem of the trousers would have a crease down the front of each leg.

• A cravat. Usually gray or blue.

• The morning coat would have three to five buttons.

• A hat was usually part of the outfit, although it was becoming more reserved to formal settings with the times.

• Cuff links and cravat pins could also be worn as part of the outfit.

• He also mentioned his use of the Mosche(wasps): Small fake skin moles, that were usually made of cloth.

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The Aesthete

Throughout the letters, the anonymous aristocrat shows a characteristic that is common to many queer people: The desire for Beauty and a Passion for the arts.

By analyzing more of his quotes, and my own experience as a queer creative, the answer for this sensibility might be on the very oppression and emotional distress we feel while growing up.

…I desired and called for death, in the horrible solitude that I was in…

…And why should I be ashamed for what I have done? Wasn’t Nature’s first mistake to condemn me to an eternal sterility.

All of my thoughts and excitements were dedicated to the Heroes… I still remember the sweet emotions on those long moments passed on the Museum’s corridors, where I could see the beautiful Heroes and naked Gods.

Even though from time to time I torment myself with laments for not being men enough or a woman. I enjoy comparing myself to the mythical Heroes, and that Hyacinth and Ganymede were not different from me, and were loved and adored by the most powerful and beautiful Gods.

In my experience, many queer people become very introspective because of the suffering from the outside world. We start to look within, and be more aware and open to our feeling and emotions (regardless of how dark they can be). We also start to look for places that we might feel safe, so our sensibility leads us to a world of Beauty. Where we can see our love, desires and identities made manifest through the lens of art.

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The shadow

I don’t feel the need to put the exact quotes from the book, as they might be triggering for some people (something to also take into account before picking up the book).

In his letters, the anonymous aristocrat makes many remarks that are problematic to say the least. We can see misogyny, internalized homophobia, some form of what we would call transphobia today, racism, antisemitism, classism and elitism.

They might offer a tool to study the culture and mind of the time, as I don’t think his contemporaries were much more tolerant than him, but these aspects of his letters and thought can offer us a reflection that many gay men and other marginalized people need to make: Being part of an oppressed group does not exclude you from participating in other forms of oppression.

Unfortunately it is not uncommon to find gay men expressing and defending ideas that go against our own broader community, especially those who can pass as the ideal hyper masculine white male. It’s a phenomenon that it’s still present today and has been part of the gay community since forever.

(The book ‘Faggots and their friends between revolutions’ (mentioned here) explore this struggle between faggots, fairies and lesbians against the empire of men, of which some queer men were complicit.)

So may we always search for Beauty, through fashion, art and pleasure. But also through community, healing and acceptance, so we may finally dissipate the shadows.

Love is One, and One is All

References:

• “How to read a suit” by Lydia Edwards

• “The perfect Gentlemen” by James Sheerwood

• “The Italian invert - a gay man’s confession to Émile Zola"

To me, as a fashion artisan & history lover, the exhibition had great highlights in the context of menswear, and how the ideals of chivalry reflected the body image and costumes of the time.

The Knighthood:

By the XIII century, changes on the male costume could already be seen in Florence: Going from the roman-inspired tunic, to the more complex garment construction. The idea was to celebrate the youth and manhood shown by knights and noblemen, while the large tunics from the past century remained to the lower classes the elderly.

The desired archetype that was widespread throughout European art, was of the opulent and gallant knight wearing fine and colored fabrics, and courting noble ladies at the height of his beauty and virility.

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It was a period of great development for garment construction and pattern making as a profession to fulfill the search for elaborated and decorated pieces, that were now designed to create a slander figure. Enhancing the chest and arms, and exposing more of the legs, in the search for a ‘vertical’ aesthetic.

The Medieval male look was now composed of:

• Footwear

  Pointy shoes called ‘poulaines’ that in places like Tuscany were subject to strict laws to safeguard decency and cultural virtue. The length, materials and decorations were controlled by legislators, but the idea was always to create an expanded and flamboyant image. The shoes could be made of leather and sometimes covered with velvet. They could also be decorated with small and symmetrical cut shapes.

• Brache

  What would later evolve to be the ancestor of modern trousers, it was originally a piece of underwear that could vary in terms of size and length, and with a lace around the waist. Young nobles, always inspired by the aesthetic of Knighthood and the desire to enhance their bodies, preferred to wear shorter ones, at knee length, and that could easily be put under the high socks that covered the whole leg.

• The Under shirt

  Usually made from natural fibers like cotton and hemp, it wasn’t well represented in art and never shown in public by members of higher classes, who would wear them under the farsetto. It’s indicated that at least in Italy, the under shirts were produced by women as professional seamstress.

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• Farsetto & Giubba

  To wear over the shirt, it’s considered to be part of the under garments so it was never shown in public. It’s supposed to cover the bust, and it was padded as a way to protect from cold. The Giubba is indicated to be a more elegant version of the Farsetto, and is mentioned with an erotic undertone in writings and novellas of the time.

• Gonnella

  A piece of garment taken directly from the knight’s armors as inspiration. It has a padded upper part to enhance the chest and short sleeves, and the lower part that resembles a small ‘skirt’. The gonnella would then be decorated with a leather belt at the waist to enhance even more the desired shape. Originally, it was designed for actual knights to be able to move and carry their swords, which then became a symbol of masculinity, and used in art as a reference to male erection.

• Guarnaca

  A sort of over-shirt that covers the gonella mostly used by older men of high status, or by men of lower classes (with less decorated and cheaper materials). It could be worn at knee-length or until the ankles, and it had a buttoned high neck.

• Mantles

  There is not one single type of an outer-garment. The length, size, materials, style of sleeves and everything else would depend on occupation and social class. But usually, such as with the Guarnaca, the mantles were preferred by older men of high status, instead of the young nobility.

In places like Florence and other Tuscan cities like Pisa and Siena, the shape, materials and decorations allowed were heavily controlled by the government in order to ensure their idea of common decency and virtue. Although with time it became a class indicator, where nobles and people of certain offices were granted privileges on what they could wear, or if a person was wealthy enough to ‘declare’ the garment and pay taxes on it.

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For those who have a passion for literature (so everyone here on Substack), Bocaccio’s Decameron has some passages describing garment pieces and how they were worn. Pairing the reading with the not so recent Netflix adaption, it’s a perfect combination for those enjoying the trend of this medieval renaissance!